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During personal interviews in the consultation room
During home visits by doctor, ANM, ASHA etc.
• The patient listens more readily
• PHN, Health visitors, health inspectors also make home visits and can be used for HE
– First create an atmosphere of friendship
– Allow the individual to talk as much as possible
– Advantages:
• One can discuss, argue and persuade for behavior change
• Provides opportunity to ask questions
– Disadvantage: numbers reached is small

1. Individual approach (individual HE)
– Personal contact (interpersonal)
– Home visits
– Personal letters

2. Group level approach
– Lecture (chalk and talk)
– Demonstration
– Discussion methods
• Group discussion
• Panel discussion
• Symposium
• Workshop
• Conferences
• Seminars
• Role play
• Debate
• Delphi method

One – way communication (Didactic method)
• Flow of communication is ‘one – way’
• Examples: lecture, television, radio
• Drawbacks:
– Knowledge is imposed (passive learning)
– Learning is authoritative
– Little participation of audience
– No feedback
– Does not influence human behavior

1. Physiological:
– Difficulties in hearing, expression

2. Psychological:
– Emotional disturbances, neurosis, level of intelligence, comprehension or language difficulties

3. Environmental:
– Noise, invisibility, congestion

1. Interpersonal communication
– Face –to – face
– Being direct, it is more persuasive and effective than any other form of communication
– Particularly important in influencing the decisions of the undecided
– Superior to mass media for motivational effect
– When the message is relayed via mass media,
• It is picked up by interpersonal networks
• The message is then subject to debate and discussion in these networks and gradually forms opinions and influence decisions

The IHR are legally binding set of regulations adopted by WHO which helps countries to save lives caused by diseases spread internationally and other health risks.
History of the IHR
• The cholera epidemics that overran Europe between 1830 and 1847 were catalysts for intensive multilateral cooperation in public health
• in 1951 WHO Member States
– adopted the ‘International Sanitary Regulations’,
– Which were replaced by and renamed the ‘International Health Regulations’ in 1969.

• Hidden hunger (micronutrient deficiency) is a form of undernutrition where intake and absorption of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals such as zinc, iodine and iron) are too low to sustain good health and development.
• Often, the signs of this form of malnutrition are ‘hidden’, as individuals may ‘look alright’ but suffer extremely negative impacts on health and well‐being.
– Because clinical signs (e.g. night blindness, goiter) appear only when the deficiency has become severe
– The health and development is affected by less obvious ‘invisible’ effects

Tool designed to comprehensively measure a country’s hunger situation
and to track hunger globally by region and country
It measures progress and failures in the global fight against hunger
It is calculated
each year and
For each country
by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
The Index ranks countries on a 100-point scale, with 0 being the best score (no hunger) and 100 being the worst
Hence lower the score, the better is the situation of hunger in the country

Gross National Income (GNI)
• Formerly k/a Gross National Product (GNP)
– Gross income generated within the country PLUS
– Net income received from abroad
• It is expressed as ‘at current prices’ (at prices prevailing during the period to which the figure refers)
– The figures are influenced by inflation but are more useful for international comparison for the same period
• or
• ‘At constant prices’ (at prices prevailing during a fixed base period in the past, irrespective of the period to which the figures refer )

• Definition: The application of scientific methods of investigation to the study of complex human organizations and services
– A mathematician working on atomic structure is pursuing pure research
– An engineer designing a new plant for an industry is pursuing applied research.
• In operational research there is a huge sociology component
– Here one is concerned with groups of people and
– the purpose is to develop and introduce beneficial changes in to the system